Daniel Nase: Amtech Thermonuclear Converter

Author: Daniel Nase

The AMTECH Thermonuclear Converter uses radiation from a nuclear source to heat liquid sodium and generate a potential across a composite ceramic doped with metal ions. This converts radiation from nuclear isotopes into electrical energy that is used to power the world's deep space satellites. The prototype and two successive designs to increase the AMTECH's efficiency where created by Daniel Nase at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in July of 1997. Successive designs were drafted, which recycle the waste radiation that escaped from the first layer of the device. The initial device was only 40% efficient. However, the third device boosted efficiency to 75%. Since there are no moving parts in the AMTECH and the nuclear material has a very long decay rate, the AMTECH is expected to power deep space satellites for more than 600 years.

Reference: NASA: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Article Tags: Electricity, Mission, Nuclear, Radiation, Nasa, Convert, Converter, Satellites, Daniel Nase, Amtech, Thermonuclear, Jpl, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pathfinder, Deep Space

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/t

The Benefits of Using Renewable Energy Over Fossil Fuels & Nuclear Power

Author: Don Alexander

Work is a force applied over a distance. Let us further define energy as a shifting back and forth, but never truly changing one thing: it's constancy.

The first law of thermodynamics: energy is conserved. Thermodynamics is the study of the movement of heat. This law instructs us that although the kind of energy in a given system can change, the total amount can't. Energy is able to travel seamlessly through systems, yet it never changes its structure or shape.

I find this concept enlightening, because you wouldn't normally think of energy as such a fluid movement. It seems more. I found it fascinating that all forms of energy are interchangeable. It makes one think about the potential of newer energy as well.

All objects hold some internal energy. That is, the kinetic energy of moving atoms. Conduction is discussed as the transfer of heat through collisions of electrons and atoms. Leaders at the University of Irvine that are studying the effect of aging, and specifically how the breakdown of DNA over time, effects aging.

The group at the University of Irvine has made a fruit fly live twice as long by their experiments. As they stated, it may only be a bit more time before scientists discover a way to reverse or slow down aging, if they can discover the cause.

Thermal conductivity, the study of how energy transfer occurs, sounds very interesting. Radiation, or the movement of infrared energy and light traveling across a room, until they absorb, are also important to the second law of thermodynamics as well, because it makes one think about the process of how atoms and energy move from place to place.

The concepts of electricity and magnetism can be explained very differently from how Sir Isaac Newton explained gravitational pulls. One learns that lightning is a result of electrical charges, which come about from the transfer of electrons. That makes one think about what is going on to cause the lightning bolt, rather than just running from them!

It's also important to note that objects with like charges experience a "get away from me" stance, while objects with opposite charges attract each other. We know that every Magnet has a north and south pole and those magnets exert forces on each other, and always contain two poles.

A compass will point at the earth's "dipole" magnetic field. Dipole is the magnetic field that arises from the two poles of a magnet. In the previous example of the earth, that would be the north and south poles. That's a long distance to carry forces!

That brings us to wavelengths, amplitude, and frequency. Science has discovered that ocean waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of the waves. James Clark Maxwell discovered that electromagnetic radiation could travel through a vacuum at the speed of light. Before this, scientists must have really wondered how that happened.

Gamma rays are the highest energies in the spectrum, and they are used to treat tumors and other medical needs in hospitals. The rays cause the bad tissues to die, allowing the human to live on his/her excellent tissues. It really makes one think about what happens as light moves.

Knowing all of the above, how can we better make use of earth's energy? The answer is renewable energy. This type of energy use taps into natural cycles such as the movement of the wind and water, the heat and light of the sun, heat in the ground, and the carbohydrates in plants. These are all natural energy sources that can supply our needs in a sustainable way.

Current levels of renewable energy use represent only a tiny fraction of what could be developed in the United States. Since electricity generation is a leading cause of carbon dioxide emissions, something needs to be done soon.

Renewable energy will also help alleviate our polluted air, water, increase plant and animal life, and help deter global warming. It's tough though, because fossil fuels and nuclear energy are tough to compete with due to their widespread usage and politics.

Still though, I encourage you, write your congressman. Let them know that you are for renewable energy and you can even get petitions going in your area to see this come to pass. Over time, renewable energy sources could replace nuclear generation altogether. Furthermore, because renewable energy is homegrown, it can increase our energy security as a nation and create a ton of jobs as well.

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/

Fission & Chain reaction

Fission describes the splitting of an atom's nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei. Most atoms will not fission because a binding energy that holds its protons and neutrons together prevents it. However, some atoms with big, unstable nuclei, like U-235, are possible to break apart. Under certain conditions, when U-235 is struck with a neutron it divides and produces two lighter atoms. The mass of these two lighter atoms added together is less than the original U-235 atom. In the process of fission the mass that seems to have disappeared has been converted into energy.

According to Einstein's formula E = mc², even a small amount of mass (m) inside the atom can be magnified by a huge number (c², the speed of light squared) to create enormous amounts of energy (E). The fissioning of one U-235 nucleus releases 50 million times more energy than the combustion of a single carbon atom. Nuclear fission produces far more heat than burning a comparable volume of hydrocarbon fuel such as oil, natural gas or coal.

Chain reaction

In addition to the creation of two new smaller nuclei, fission frees some neutrons to make other atoms divide. They strike other U-235 atoms and release more neutrons. As long as there are uranium atoms present, the fission process continues. This is called a chain reaction. It is this chain reaction that makes a sustained nuclear reaction possible. It creates an ongoing release of energy from one atom to the next and therefore provides a continuous source of energy.

If uncontrolled the fission reaction multiplies rapidly and can produce an explosion. However, in a nuclear reactor, fission is controlled. Only one neutron is allowed to produce another fission. Control rods prevent the number of neutrons in a nuclear reactor from growing too large by absorbing excess neutrons. To do this, control rods are inserted into the core of the reactor. Pushed in, they soak up neutrons and slow down the reaction; pulled out they allow it to speed up again. In this way the chain reaction is controlled.

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How does uranium become nuclear fuel?

Uranium, as it is mined from the ground, is not directly useable for power generation. Much processing must be carried out before uranium can be used efficiently to generate electricity. Uranium's transformation from ore in the ground into nuclear fuel and ultimately the handling of waste products is described as the nuclear fuel cycle.

After a successful exploration program, uranium ore undergoes:

1. mining and milling to produce uranium concentrate known as yellowcake
2. conversion of the concentrated uranium into either uranium dioxide (UO₂) for heavy water reactors or gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF₆) for light water reactors
3. enrichment, which increases the proportion of the rarer 'fissile' form of uranium, U-235, which is the essential component of nuclear fuel
4. fuel fabrication, where the uranium is manufactured into fuel pellets
5. electricity generation where nuclear fuel is loaded into a reactor and allows nuclear reactions to generate electricity. After fuel is consumed, it is removed from the reactor and stored on-site for a number of years while its radioactivity and heat subside.
6. optional chemical reprocessing, after a period of storage, recover from the spent fuel elements any residual uranium or byproduct plutonium, both of which are still useful sources of energy - and at the same time to separate and package the highly radioactive residues produced while the fuel was in the reactor; or alternatively storage, without chemical treatment, for up to fifty years to allow the radioactivity to diminish; (while its radioactivity and heat subside).
7. and finally disposal where, depending on the design of the disposal facility, the nuclear fuel may be recovered if needed again, or else remain permanently stored. At some point in the future the spent fuel will be encapsulated in sturdy, leach-resistant containers and permanently placed deep underground where it originated, thus completing the cycle.

Steps one to four are known as the front end of the fuel cycle; steps six and seven, the back end, refers to what happens after the fuel comes out of the reactor.

How do you find uranium deposits?

Today's exploration activities are much more complex than in the past since the deposits that were close to the surface were found first because they were easier to discover. With the highest-grade deposits buried in deep rock formations, advanced technologies like satellite imagery, geophysical surveys, multi-element geochemical analysis and computer processing are required to locate and confirm the deposits.

Once geologists locate a prospective deposit, detailed geological and economic evaluation of the grade and characteristics of the orebody must be completed. Then mining engineers develop a mining plan to extract the ore. If the project looks promising, environmental impact assessments and the public consultation process begin so that applications can be made for regulatory approvals of project development. When permits and licences are in place, mine development and construction of surface facilities can begin. The timeline from discovery of an orebody to electricity production can span decades. Cameco's McArthur River mine was fast-tracked and still took 12 years to bring to commercial production.

At Cameco, uranium exploration has focused in recent years on targets in northern Saskatchewan's Athabasca Basin and in Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia.

How is uranium mined?

Uranium ore is removed from the ground in one of three ways depending on the characteristics of the deposit. Uranium deposits close to the surface can be recovered using the open pit mining method, and underground mining methods are used for deep deposits. In some circumstances the ore may be mined by in situ recovery, a process that dissolves the uranium while still underground and then pumps a uranium-bearing solution to the surface.

Open pit mining

When uranium ore is found near the surface, generally less than 100 metres deep, it is typically extracted by the open pit mining method. Open pit mining begins by removing overburden (soil) and waste rock on top of the orebody to expose the hard rock. Then a pit is excavated to access the ore. The walls of the pit are mined in a series of benches to prevent them from collapsing. To mine each bench, holes are drilled into the rock and loaded with explosives, which are detonated to break up the rock. The resulting broken rock is then hauled to the surface in large trucks that carry up to 200 tonnes of material at a time.

Cameco's Key Lake mine in 1994. The photo on the left is an aerial view of Deilmann Pit. On the right, ore is being loaded onto a truck to be transported to the surface. After mining was completed in 1996, the pit was converted to a tailings storage facility.

Cross-section of McArthur River underground development

Mine operator Arthur Bekkattala uses a remote controlled scoop tram to collect and transport uranium ore 640 metres underground at McArthur River, the world's largest, highest grade uranium mine.

Cameco uses in situ recovery mining at its Crow Butte operation in Nebraska.

Underground mining

When an orebody is located more than 100 metres below the surface, underground mining methods are necessary since it is uneconomic to mine by open pit. For example, Cameco's McArthur River orebody is located more than 500 metres below the surface and so is it mined using an underground mining method.

The first step in underground mining is to access the ore. Entry into underground mines is gained by digging vertical shafts to the depth of the orebody. Then a number of tunnels are cut around the deposit. A series of horizontal tunnels, called drifts, offer access directly to the ore and provide ventilation pathways. All underground mines are ventilated, but in uranium mines, extra care is taken with ventilation to minimize the amount of radiation exposure and dust inhalation.

In most underground mines the ore is blasted and hoisted to the surface for milling. At McArthur River, due to the potential for radiation exposure from the high-grade ore, processing systems must ensure worker safety. As a result, the ore is processed underground to the consistency of fine sand, diluted with water and pumped to the surface as slurry or mud. The slurry is trucked to the Key Lake site for milling.

does uranium become nuclear fuel?
How do you find uranium deposits?
How is uranium mined?
What happens to the ore during milling?
What is refining and conversion?
What is enrichment?
What is fuel fabrication?
How does a nuclear reactor work?
Can nuclear fuel be reused?
How are nuclear fuel wastes handled?

Source:http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php#two
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How is nuclear energy produced?

How can something so small generate so much energy? The secret is in the basic building block of all matter - the atom. All matter in the universe is made up of atoms, particles so tiny that they cannot be observed even under a microscope.

Atoms

The atom resembles a miniature solar system. In the centre of the atom is the nucleus around which electrons orbit, like planets moving around the sun. The nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, contains most of the mass of the atom. Tiny electrons move around in relatively large orbits with nothing in between.

Atoms that contain an equal number of protons and electrons are referred to as elements. There are 90 kinds of naturally occurring elements and at least 14 other artificial elements have been created by scientists in controlled experiments. Elements are listed in a periodic table arranged according to their number of protons (atomic number). For example, an atom of hydrogen, the lightest element, has just one proton in the nucleus. An atom of uranium, the heaviest element found in nature, has 92 protons.

Elements are listed in a periodic table arranged according to their number of protons.

Isotopes

The number of protons in the nucleus of an element is always the same but the number of neutrons may vary. For example, carbon atoms that have six protons usually have six neutrons. However, some have eight. Atoms that have a different number of neutrons than protons are called isotopes. Each isotope is identified by its atomic mass, the sum of its protons and neutrons.

Naturally occurring uranium is made up primarily of two different uranium isotopes. Approximately 99.3% is uranium 238 (U-238) with 92 protons and 146 neutrons, and 0.7% is uranium 235 (U-235). Under certain conditions the nucleus of U-235 can be made to split, or fission. Because of this property, U-235 plays an important role in the creation of nuclear energy.

Splitting the nucleus of an atom - a process called nuclear fission - releases the binding energy. The energy released is nuclear energy.

Source:http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php#two
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What are the sources of energy?

There are six basic kinds of energy. As you throw a basketball, your arms give it mechanical energy in the form of movement. A burning log gives off chemical energy, which you can see as light and feel as heat. A hot burner on the stove receives electrical energy from an outlet and supplies thermal energy to a frying pan with eggs. The sun sends radiant energy to Earth every day in the form of light but gets its own nuclear energy from reactions inside the nuclei of its own atoms. Nuclear energy can be produced in two ways. In the sun, energy is created by the joining of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion. On Earth the nuclei of larger atoms such as uranium split apart to create energy in a process called fission. All types of energy are essentially different forms of one another.

Source:http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php#two
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How is uranium related to energy?

Uranium is an element found in nature. Used as a nuclear fuel, it is a source of energy. Uranium fuel is emissions-free, making it safe for the environment and in comparison to other fuels, only a tiny quantity is required to generate an equivalent amount of electricity. All the uranium produced by Cameco is used to generate electricity.

Society depends on electricity. It wakes us up, cooks our food, keeps us warm, cools us off, runs the factories, and connects us to the Internet. We may take these conveniences for granted but many of the things we do require electricity.

Electricity is a form of energy. The universe is made up of both matter and energy. Matter is all those things that have weight, or mass - rocks, trees, lakes, people, animals. Energy is harder to describe, but it is observed all the time. Energy is the force that makes things move and change. In other words, if the universe were a watch... energy would make it tick.

Source:http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php#two
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